The feed industry originated several hundred years ago by utilizing by-products from wheat and corn milling, meat packing, milk processing, and oilseed processing (Bursick, 2005). In 1810, German scientist Albrecht Daniel Thaer developed the first feed standards by comparing various feedstuffs to meadow hay (Coffey et al., 2016). Later, the Weende Experiment Station in Germany, led by Henneberg and Stohmann, introduced the proximate analysis system, which categorized feeds into six components: moisture, ash, crude protein, ether extract, crude fiber, and nitrogen-free extract. This system remains fundamental for basic comparisons of nutrient values in feedstuffs today.
In its early stages, feed manufacturing primarily involved selling, mixing, warehousing, and delivery services with minimal scientific formulation. Today, however, animal feeds are formulated with greater scientific precision than they can sometimes be manufactured (Schofield, 2005). The objective of both feed formulation and manufacturing is to maximize nutrient delivery and utilization to support optimal animal growth and production.
Feed formulation involves selecting and combining feed ingredients to create nutritionally balanced diets that meet the specific production goals of livestock and poultry. While formulation software allows for least-cost nutritional optimization, formulations based solely on nutrient content may not always be manufacturable into pellets with suitable characteristics such as water stability, bulk density, and hardness. Conversely, formulations optimized for manufacturability may not always be ideal for rapid, economical animal growth. Thus, effective feed formulation requires a blend of nutritional expertise and practical manufacturing experience.
During the early development of the feed industry, commonly used ingredients included molasses, cottonseed meal, corn gluten meal, linseed meal, tankage, meat scraps, and bone meal (Schofield, 2005). As the nutritional value of agricultural by-products became more widely recognized, the commercial feed industry expanded to incorporate new materials as feed ingredients. Soybean meal was first produced in the U.S. in 1922, followed by the introduction of ingredients such as citrus pulp, brewers’ grains, fish meal, animal fats, and feather meal. Now, the soybean meal, often considered the cornerstone of modern animal agriculture, accounts for more than 50% of all high-protein feeds. Today, novel ingredients such as microalgae, single-cell proteins, and insect meal are being explored for their potential role in sustainable animal feed production. Because ingredient availability and pricing fluctuate, feed companies must continuously adjust ingredient ratios or find substitutes to minimize costs.
The first major milestone in feed science was Thaer’s feeding standards in 1810 (Bursick, 2005). Since then, numerous advancements have significantly improved the production of meat, milk, and eggs over the past century.
One of the most significant breakthroughs in feed manufacturing was the introduction of linear programming and least-cost formulation (Bursick, 2005). The advent of computerized feed formulation enabled researchers to explore the feasibility of numerous ingredient combinations, leading to more cost-effective and nutritionally optimized feeds. Today, nearly all feed manufacturers rely on least-cost formulation techniques.
Early feed manufacturing relied on hand scoops and shovels. As feed companies expanded, the need for greater efficiency led to the development of advanced feed processing equipment. Today, modern feed plants utilize state-of-the-art machinery designed to enhance production efficiency, meet nutritional demands, and support sustainable feed production.
The first phase of feed manufacturing (1850s–1940s) saw the introduction of more efficient machines such as roller mills, hammer mills, horizontal mixers, volumetric feeders, and extruders (Bursick, 2005). These innovations improved production capacity and efficiency.
In the 1970s, automated and computerized feed processing plants emerged in the U.S., followed by the development of automated micro-batching systems in the 1980s and 1990s. These systems allowed for precise weighing of low-inclusion ingredients, while advances in liquid ingredient addition enabled the incorporation of enzymes, amino acids, vitamins, and flavors at micro levels. By the 1990s, twin-screw extruder technology for aquaculture feed was introduced.
Sustainable Development in Feed Manufacturing
Since the early 2000s, the drive for sustainable animal farming has influenced diet formulation and feed production. Environmental considerations now play a key role in feed development, particularly in aquaculture.
For example, in freshwater farming with flow-through systems, feeds are formulated to minimize nutrient release, such as phosphorus and suspended solids, to prevent water pollution. In recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), feed formulations are designed to minimize nitrogen and phosphorus excretion while controlling mineral accumulation (e.g., copper and zinc). High mineral concentrations in water can become toxic to aquatic life, necessitating stricter feed regulations. Although such formulation adjustments increase feed costs, they do not necessarily raise overall production costs for fish farming.
One of the most significant advancements in modern feed technology is extrusion cooking, now the most common method for producing aquaculture feeds. In an extrusion cooking system, raw materials undergo high temperature, pressure, and shear force, resulting in fully gelatinized starch, restructured proteins, and thoroughly mixed ingredients that form homogeneous pellets. Extruded feed pellets offer several advantages over traditional compressed pellets. They have lower pellet density, higher oil absorption capacity in post-vacuum coating, improved pellet durability with reduced fines, and require less starch as a nutritional binder due to higher gelatinization. Controlling bulk density during extrusion allows for the production of floating, slow-sinking, or sinking pellets, making them particularly beneficial for pond-based aquaculture. The ability to control pellet characteristics ensures efficient feed utilization and minimizes waste. Despite the higher initial investment costs associated with extrusion equipment, the long-term benefits in feed efficiency, durability, and waste reduction make it a preferred choice in modern feed production.
References:
© 2025 All rights reserved.
