Animal feed manufacturing begins with feed formulation, which involves selecting and combining feed ingredients. The goal of feed formulation is to achieve complete and balanced nutrition while adhering to cost-effective specifications. With the aid of feed formulation software, the process has become more efficient. However, formulations that meet all the necessary nutritional requirements may be difficult to manufacture into pellets that satisfy practical considerations such as pellet durability, oil absorption capacity, hardness, buoyancy, and water stability (particularly for fish feed), as well as ingredient availability and cost. Conversely, formulations optimized for pellet quality may not always provide the best support for rapid and economical animal growth.
Some of these practical considerations are relatively easy to manage, while others require expertise gained through practical experience. Feed formulation and feed manufacturing are not independent processes; rather, they are interconnected elements within the feed manufacturing industry.
The primary objective of feed manufacturing for commercial animal farming is to produce feed that maximizes animal performance or production at the lowest possible cost (Hardy and Brezas, 2022). For example, different feeds must align with specific production goals in aquaculture, such as ensuring high hatchery survival rates for larvae and fry or achieving cost-effective growth rates for juvenile fish. Additionally, different growth stages of the same species require distinct formulations. For instance, Atlantic salmon require feed with flesh pigmentation during the final months before harvest. Similarly, different feed formulations are necessary for other types of animal farming.
When formulating feeds, the physical and processing characteristics of ingredients are just as important as their nutritional content. Some ingredients primarily provide nutrition, such as fishmeal, while others function as binders within the ingredient mixture, such as wheat flour, wheat gluten, and corn gluten. A fundamental requirement in feed manufacturing is that the ingredient mixture must possess sufficient binding capacity to form stable pellets. These pellets must exhibit specific durability, bulk density, and water stability to withstand transportation and handling from the feed factory to the end user while minimizing nutrient loss through leaching. For aquatic feed, this stability is crucial to prevent disintegration, which could otherwise deteriorate water quality.
Modern feed formulation and manufacturing are increasingly driven by sustainable development and the need for innovation in animal nutrition and feed technology. Life cycle assessment (LCA) studies have shown that aquatic feed is often the primary contributor to undesirable environmental impacts in commercial aquaculture (FAO, 2022). As a result, new ingredients are gradually being introduced to replace fishmeal, fish oil, and other less sustainable components. These alternative ingredients are often more environmentally sustainable, including plant by-products, micro- and macro-algae, insects, fish and land animal by-products, and single-cell proteins derived from bacteria and yeast.
Alternative protein sources must meet several essential criteria: they should be nutritionally adequate, palatable to farmed organisms, derived from sustainable sources, stable in handling and storage, and, most importantly, nutritious while minimizing environmental and life cycle impacts (FAO, 2022). However, incorporating these novel ingredients presents new challenges for feed formulation and manufacturing.
From a nutritional perspective, feed ingredients come from various sources, including protein supplements, basal ingredients (energy sources), and vitamin and mineral premixes. In addition to nutritional components, non-nutritive ingredients are also frequently included in feed formulations. These may consist of pellet binders, carotenoid pigments, medications, hormones, antimicrobial agents, antioxidants, fiber, and flavoring agents. Protein supplements typically include meat processing by-products, hydrolyzed meat by-products, land animal by-products, plant proteins, and other protein sources. Basal ingredients generally consist of carbohydrate (starch) sources, fats, and oils.
The use of feed ingredients must comply with governmental regulations and laws. In the United States, the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) (www.aafco.org) oversees the regulation of animal feeds and drugs. Similarly, in the European Union, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (efsa.europa.eu) and the European Commission, Animal Feed Section (ec.europa.eu/food/safety/animal-feed_en) play the same regulatory roles.
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